Not All Confusion Is Equal: A Source-Aware Uncertainty Diagnosis for Fine-Grained Aircraft Detection

Hai Huang, Helmut Mayer

Fine-grained object detectors are commonly evaluated with confusion matrices, which show where the model is confused but not why, nor whether the confusion can be reduced. We argue that confusion can be attributed to distinct, separable sources, each quantitatively measurable, turning a passive measurement into actionable guidance. We present $A^2E^2$, a diagnostic tool that decomposes the sources of confusion along two axes, $\{$aleatoric, epistemic$\} \times \{$within-class, between-class$\}$, giving a $2\times2$ taxonomy that enumerates the source types. Each quadrant is measured by its own quantity, computed in one of three places (input geometry, output-space disagreement, and the bias-parameter posterior), so the two epistemic sources are separated by construction rather than by an empirical correlation. On fine-grained aircraft detection, the four quadrants become four named sources with their own remedy verdict: affinity (geometric similarity, irreducible from size alone), heterogeneity (geometrically heterogeneous sub-variants, pointing to re-labeling rather than more data), contested (an insufficiently trained but learnable boundary, improvable), and collapsed (a class…